Exploring the Halal Perspectives on Animal Excrement and Its Renewable Energy Products
Ahmad Munjin Nasih1, Nur Faizin1, Eli Hendrik Sanjaya1, Achmad Sultoni1, Cecep Soleh Kurniawan2
1 Universitas Negeri Malang, Jl. Semarang No. 5 Malang, East Java, Indonesia
2 Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali, Simpang 347, Jalan Pasar Gadong, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Correspondence should be addressed to Ahmad Munjin Nasih; munjin.nasih.fs@um.ac.id, Nur Faizin; nur.faizin.fs@um.ac.id, Eli Hendrik Sanjaya; eli.hendrik.fmipa@um.ac.id, Achmad Sultoni; achmad.sultoni.fs@um.ac.id, Cecep Soleh Kurniawan; soleh.kurniawan@unissa.edu.bn
Cite this: Nusantara Halal J. 2022, Vol. 3 No.1 pp. 1–11 (Article) | Received 24 March 2022 | Revised 3 May 2022 | Accepted 16 June 2022 | Published 30 June 2022 | http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/um060.2022v3p001-011
Abstract
Energy consumption continues to increase following the escalation of economic growth worldwide. The U.S. Energy Information Administration predicts global energy consumption will increase by 50% from 2018 to 2050, with the highest increase in Asia. But up to recently, coal and oil are still the primary sources of energy. Thus, a novel and renewable alternative energy is a necessity. Biomass is one of the most abundant renewable energy sources that come from various sources. However, the Muslim world population feels the need for an answer to the halal status of this energy source. This paper examines Islamic classical and modern legal literature on halal law concerning biomass production using ritually unclean materials such as animal manure, transaction, and distribution. This study found many differences in the views of Islamic jurists regarding biomass use, trading, and distribution to the public. This paper concludes that Islamic jurists have offered some solutions on how Muslims can use animal manure that is considered excrement to become valuable goods for the benefit of humans.
Keywords: Islamic economy, Halal consumers, Market.
Introduction
In the last few decades, energy consumption has continued to increase along with increasing economic growth. However, the world’s energy consumption declined in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic [1]. Global energy consumption has been predicted to increase by 50% from 2018 to 2050, with the highest increase in Asia [2]. Recently, coal and oil remained the primary energy sources, but they are derived from non-renewable fossils. Their number continues to decrease, and the price becomes increasingly expensive. Therefore, the use of renewable energy is a solution that continues to be developed and becomes a necessity as alternative energy to replace fossil-based energy [3]
The use of new and renewable energy from sunlight, water, wind, biomass, ocean waves, and geothermal energy continues to be developed, even though the percentage is still small. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2022, new and renewable alternative energy is predicted to account for 43% of world energy use [4]. Biomass is an organic material derived from living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, which usually has a composition of cellulose, lignin, sugar, fat, and protein [5]. Biomass is one of the most abundant renewable energy sources from various sources such as wood, sawdust, straw, seed, animal manure, paper, household, and wastewater [6]. Animal manure is one of the sources of biomass that is not used optimally. In fact, animal waste also increases along with the increase in the number of farms to meet milk and meat needs. If this is not used wisely, it will result in environmental pollution. Therefore, animal manure as an alternative energy source needs to be optimized [7], [8]. In Europe and several other countries, such as Japan, animal waste is managed into products with high-value benefits, such as fertilizers, gas, and electrical energy [9], [10]. However, in most countries, animal manure is generally only processed into fertilizer, and most is thrown away. The problem is even more complex in countries with a Muslim-majority population. Besides the limitations of animal waste management technology, it also involves the spiritual dimension. Some Muslims have not entirely accepted the processing of animal manure. This is because animal manure management is considered contrary to Islamic law. Some Muslims believe that animal manure is considered ritually unclean (najis), so its management, including buying and selling, distribution, and processing, is haram [11].
For Muslims, like food, the issue of the legality of using other materials is fundamental [12], [13]. In the treasury of Islamic law, changes in the status of the halal and haram of an item are very dependent on the Islamic theorem or the underlying cause. In a prevalent rule, it is stated that al hukmu yaduru ma’a illiharai embodiment was adamant (the law of a case depends on the presence or absence of a cause) [14]. This rule provides space to conduct a more in-depth study of why animal manure has been considered najis. Is it because it is something disgusting? If this is the leading cause, what if the dirt has been processed into other goods so that the leading cause no longer appears and changes? What if processed goods are traded and used by humankind? [15].
Animal excrement in Islam
Animal excrement is a unique energy source that can be adopted as alternative energy. Besides, proper animal manure management resolves the waste management issue in most parts of the world [16]. Moreover, biogas from organic waste produces renewable energy and becomes a waste management strategy to maintain environmental health.
From the Islamic law perspective, animal manure is perceived as najis by most Muslim Ulama [17]. In Islamic law, the reason for proclaimed excrement is not definite. The determination of najis? Pronouncement does not merely rely on its disgusting level. Some people may consider saliva and snot gross, but the ulama does not acknowledge it as najis.
Similarly, manure is not declared merely because something is dirty. Soil is unclear, but in Islam, it is reported as ritually clean (sacred) and even can be used to wash up (tayammum) and clean the najis, such as najis from dogs and pigs, according to Safi’i school. Therefore, the najis declaration mostly follows the theorem within Al-Qur’an.
Islam obligates its adherents to do a ritual purification before they carry out regular prayers or other religious activities. As Allah pronounced in Al-Qur’an, “Purify your garments” (Quran 74:4, Kemenag). Islam separates the unclean from najis. The contaminated goods are not always declared as najis, such as soil and sperm, which are proclaimed sacred even if dirty. Besides, the things considered najis are not always muddy, such as pork and dogs, which remain manure even after being cleaned. Additionally, some things considered disgusting by some people are not always najis, such as snot.
The Al-Quran mentions several objects, which Ulama later declares as excrements, such as in Al-Maidah verse 3 and Al-an’am verse 145. This verse says several haram objects, some later understood as unclean objects, such as carrion, blood, and dogs. There are no verses in Al-Qur’an that have explicitly acknowledged animal excrement as excrement. The relatively more precise directory on animal waste has been identified from several hadiths from the Prophet.
As narrated, when Prophet Muhammad went to defecate, He asked Ibnu Mas’ud to find three stones. Then, Ibnu Mas’ud brought two stones and one dried dirt. The Prophet took the two stones and threw away the dirt while saying that it was rijs/unclean (HR. Ahmad 3757, Turmudzi 17, al-Baihaqiy) [18]–[20]. The ulama presumed that the dirt in the hadith came from dried animal manure, so the Prophet did not use it. Contrastingly, another hadith implies that animal manure is not categorized as najis. The hadith said that The Prophet always prayed whenever the prayer time came, and he once prayed in a goat pen (HR. Bukhari) [21].
Aside from the najis status of animal manure, biomass production faces other essential issues, such as the law on its management, commercialization, and distribution.
Ulama’s View on Animal Excrement
The ulama has proposed distinctive opinions on animal manure’s status in Islamic law. The first opinion states that all animal manure is najis, even from the animal with edible halal meat. This opinion mostly comes from the Ulama who believe in Shafi’i school [22] and Hanafi school, except Imam Zufar [23]. The second opinion explains that the manure from an animal with edible halal meat is also halal and sacred. Meanwhile, the manure of animals with haram meat is najis. This viewpoint comes from the Hanabilah school of thought and Imam Zufar from Hanafi madhabs. Meanwhile, the Maliki school states that the manure from halal animals is divided into sacred and najis based on their food; if they eat halal food, their manure is halal and religious, and vice versa [24].
Unlike the opinion from Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, the Shi’i ulama, especially the Zaidiyyah, explains that camel manure and other animal manure with halal edible meat is halal if the animal eats halal food. If those animals eat the objects considered najis, their manure is also acknowledged as najis [25]. Therefore, the classical views from the Ulama on animal manure are broadly divided into najis and sacred. Table 1 presents two perspectives on the excrement status of the excrement istihalah from Ulama.
Table 1. The Excrement Status of the Excrement Istihalah
| No | Madhabs | Law | Requirement | |
| 1 | Sunni | Hanafi, Maliki, Hambali | divine | Changes in shape |
| Shafi’i | divine | Naturally change with no mixture with other ingredients | ||
| 2 | Shi’i | Zaidiyyah | divine | The struggle of form from being something useful |
In Islam, halal product commercialization carries no juristic consequences, but the najis object commercialization may move differently. The najis object can be commercialized once it has undergone ritual purification and transformed into a halal product. This transformation process is known as istihalah or ihalah [26]). The transformation covers three aspects: color, taste, and smell [27]. Additionally, in other terms, this process is popular as dzatiy (change of entity).
These issues require an answer that follows the primary sources in Islam, namely Al-Qur’an and Sunnah, along with the opinion of Islamic law experts authoritative in the four maddhabs (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hambali) followed by most Muslims around the world. The studies on managing and utilizing animal waste in renewable energy do not aim to legitimize the product. It instead seeks to investigate the short and long-term probable benefits of this renewable energy. It is linear with the Islamic principle, saying that benefit is the primary purpose of Islamic law in realizing goodness for humankind. Ten things are unclean in the Shia school, namely: (1) blood, (2) sperm from living things that have blood flowing in their bodies, be they humans, animals, living on land or in the sea, even though the meat is lawful to eat, (3) carcasses. Animals that have blood flowing in their bodies, (4) mainland dogs, (5) mainland pigs, (6) infidels (non-Muslims), both genuine and apostates, (7) intoxicants in original liquid form, (8) liquor, (9) urine, (10) animal feces that are not lawful to eat, such as dog and pig excrement or animals that only eat feces/unclean [28].
The Ulama from the four predominant madhabs in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hambali, state that the excrement object has changed and no longer carries its innate elements can be considered as halal and sacred. This deformation can be carried out through burning, fragmentation, mixing, and so forth [29]. However, the Shafi’iyah and Hanabilah ulama limits this istihalah process, which can only be carried out on alcohol, the skin of the corpse (except pig and dog), and the larva from the carcass. Meanwhile, the Hanafiyyah and Malikiyah give no limitation for the istihalah [30].
In the issue of biogas and biomass, animal manure and human manure (perceived by some people as najis), with carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids as their primary components, have experienced shape transformation into gas. In this form, the gas’ most significant component is methane (CH4, 50–70%) and carbon dioxide (CO2, 30–40%), followed by nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Therefore, biogas has undergone istihalah, following the Islamic jurisprudence, so that according to Hanafi, Maliki, and one of the Hambali madhhabs, the produced biogas is divine and can be used. The transformational flow of this najis object into the divine biogas is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Transformational Flow of Excrement Object into Divine Object
The Law on the Sale and Purchase of Animal Manure
The rule on the sale and purchase of animal manure as biogas can be determined from the law on selling and purchasing najis objects. The fiqh scholar’s viewpoint on this issue originated from understanding fiqh madhabs ulama in the following hadith. This hadith is from the Prophet’s closest companion, Jabir bin Abdillah, who listened to the Prophet saying during the conquest of Makkah: “Indeed, Allah and His Prophets forbid the sale and purchase of alcohol, carcass, dogs, and idolatry.” Then, someone asked, “The Prophet, what about the fat from the corpse that can be used to polish the boats and skin while also being used by humans as gas for electricity.” The Prophet answered, “No, selling that object is haram.” Then, He said, “May Allah destroy the Jewish, Allah prohibits (haram) for them the fat (from a corpse), while they melted it, sell it, and used the money to eat” (HR. Bukhari) [21].
This hadith explains that the sale and purchase of the corpse’s fat are prohibited, while the money from its selling is also haram, even if it is beneficial for human life. From that behavior, the Prophet also prayed for the badness of the Jewish because they practiced that activity. There are different madhabs related to selling and purchasing najis objects, including animal manure and the produced biogas.
In the Shafi’i school and most of the maddhabs, they require that the object that can be sold and purchased should have value (mutamawwal). Therefore, if the najis objects have value, they can be sold and purchased. Meanwhile, in the Hanafi school, an object can be bought and sold not because of its najis status but because it benefits humankind [31].
Specifically, there are three primary opinions on the law of selling and buying animal manure (sirjîn). First, it is allowed by the Hanafi madhab, Ibnu Qasim from Maliki madhab, and one of the opinions from the Hambali madhab. Second, it is prohibited, according to Shafi’i madhab. Third, according to the Maliki madhab, the manure can be sold and bought from the animal with edible and halal meat that has been slaughtered, but if the animal is not halal, then the manure is najis.
Even if the Shafi’i madhab prohibits the selling and buying of manure of animals, this madhab allows the transfer of ownership of the animal manure through the mechanism of naql yad (transfer of ownership). The difference between naql yad and buying and selling is in the function of money; in buying and selling, the money is the medium of exchange equal to the object’s value, while in the naql yad the money is the reward given to the previous owner [32]. According to the views of the Shi’a madhhab, animal dung that can be useful can also be traded. In the Shi’a madhhab, the benefits of animal urine can be used, and animal waste can be used as fertilizer or fuel. Using manure for fertilizer and fuel is a calculated use in their view [28].
The Process of Biogas Production
Animal manure or waste is an exclusive source of energy that can be used to meet current energy demands. Managing this animal waste also resolves the issue of waste management in most parts of the world [6]. One of the means to use animal manure is by transforming it into biomass energy in the form of biogas. The process of biomass-to-biogas transformation is known as methane fermentation or anaerobic digestion. Four biochemical processes during methane fermentation are hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis [33]–[35] illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The reactions in the methane fermentation process (Al-Nawawi, 2001).
In hydrolysis, the hydrolytic bacteria secrete the extracellular enzyme to transform carbohydrates, lipid, and proteins into glucose, long-chain fatty acid (LCFA), and amino acid [36]. The acidogenic microorganisms absorb the hydrolysis products through their cell membrane and digest them through their metabolism, resulting in the produced VFA, which comes into the acetogenesis process, along with the metabolism results in the form of acetic acid ready for the acetolactic methanogenesis [37]. In the methanogenesis process, the last stage of anaerobic digestion, the methanogenic microorganisms consume accessible substances to produce methane and carbon dioxide [38]. Figure 3 showcases the transformation of animal excrement into biogas and other products.
Figure 3. Transformation of animal excrement into biogas and other products (Ferry, 2010)
Animal Manure Commercialization
The halal status of biogas utilization that follows the fiqh law raises another issue. If the biogas is produced massively, then the accumulation of the manure from the cattlemen can be an issue. Besides, the distribution of the produced biogas and the transaction process of the product should also be considered. About this issue, Shafi’i madhab offers naql al-yad transactions. In this opinion, they also explain that najis objects are allowed if they are not consumed. Meanwhile, distribution through a third party is also permitted, according to the fiqh rules.
The rule perceives that the utilization of najis object is in muamalah (the relations between humans and the environment), in which the origins of the fiqh states that al-ashl fî al-muâmalât al-ibâhah (the provenance law in muamalah is allowed). Besides, the primary reason for biogas utilization is to fulfill a human need (hâjah) so that it is permitted [39]. The wide-scale production of biogas requires a significant amount of raw material supply. Consequently, people may commercialize animal manure. Islam has regulated the commercialization of both human and animal manure. From fiqh law’s perspective, the commercialization of excrement objects has been discussed across madhab. Islamic law regards the utilization and commercialization of an object as different matters. An object can be utilized but prohibited from being commercialized, such as a human is haram to be commercialized, but human service can be used.
Utilization of Biogas
Islamic law’s perspective on najis objects is interrelated with the theorems from Al-Qur’an and al-hadiths. One of the postulates on avoiding najis objects is the prohibition to getting close and consuming najis beverage from alcohol, as explained in the Quran (Quran 5: 90, Kemenag) “O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid1 it that you may be successful.” This Al-Qur’an verse describes alcohol (intoxicants) as an excrement object that should be avoided and never be utilized. It is linear with a hadith. During the conquest of Makah, the Prophet said, “Indeed, Allah and His Prophets forbid the sale and purchase of alcohol, carcasses, dogs, and idolatry.” Then, someone asked, “The Prophet, what about the fat from the corpse that can be used to polish the boats and skin, while also can be used by humans as gas for electricity.” The Prophet answered, “No, selling that object is haram.” (HR. Bukhari) [21].
As explained in the previous hadith, the fat from the corpse has three utilizations, namely (1) to polish boats, (2) to polish skin, and (3) as the fuel for electricity. In the last part of the hadith, the Prophet emphasizes the haram status of the object. Consequently, three opinions related to the utilization of the najis object emerge. First, according to the Hanabilah madhab, the employment of najis objects (corpse’s fat) as electricity’s fuel is prohibited [40]. Second, from the Malikiyah madhab, the utilization of najis object that gets people smudged on it is also prohibited (Al-Hambali, 2001). This opinion also supports Hanabilah maddhab, as mentioned by Ibnu Taimiyah and Ibnu al-Qayyim al-Jauziyyah [41].
This view was originated from a hadith explaining that when the Prophet walked toward a dead goat, and He said, “Why did not the owner make use of it and tan it” (HR. Bukhari Muslim) [21], [42]. Meanwhile, another hadith tells us that when a goat is donated to a Maimunah’s slave, then the goat is dead. The Prophet met him and said, “Why did not you take the skin, tan, and use it?” then he said, “It was a corpse,” then The Prophet said, “it is only haram to eat it” (HR. Bukhari Muslim)) [21], [42]. The hadith signifies that utilizing najis objects, such as the goat corpse, is allowed and suggested in some cases. Therefore, the utilization of the najis object is allowed and halal.
Biomass Applications
Biomass has a lot of potential and application in various fields, namely automotive, cosmetic, biocomposite, pulp and paper, pharmaceutical, medical, textile, nanocellulose, food, and electronic [43]. However, along with the global energy crisis, the application of biomass for generating energy is increasing. Biomass is the most effective source of bio-renewable energy since it exists worldwide. About 15% of the global energy is supplied by biomass energy sources. It supports up to 35% of energy in the developing countries [44].
Nevertheless, in developed countries, gasification-based biomass has been used commercially as bioenergy for daily needs such as cooking and energy for heaters on a big scale. However, in developing countries, biomass utilization is still limited to fertilizer and biogas on a small scale. Biomass renewable energy sources, such as rice husk, trees, wood, and sawdust, can be utilized as energy and non-energy sources. As an energy source, biomass is converted to fuel or generates heat and electricity. Fuel from biomass can be solid fuels (briquettes), liquid fuels (biodiesel production), and gaseous fuels (synthetic gas). As a non-energy source, biomass plays a part in agricultural and industrial purposes. In agriculture, biomass can be animal feed and food, treatment of soil and biochar, and recycling materials. In addition, construction, chemical, and adsorbent materials are biomass for industrial purposes [44].
Scientific Perspectives on Istihalah
When viewed from the perspective of natural science (science), istihalah (change) is classified into two types: chemical and physical. The main difference between the two changes is forming a new substance. A change is called a chemical change if the change produces an unknown substance; for example, the reaction between oxygen gas (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2) has water (H2O). In physical changes, no new substances are formed; only changes in material properties occur. For example, the physical form changes, but the components of the constituent substances are the same; heated ice will melt into water, or vice versa. The physical property of ice is complex, while water is soft. The substance that makes up ice and water is still the same: the H2O molecule. Based on most scholars’ opinions, it is evident that the changes that occur in istihala are included in chemical changes. Here are some examples of istihalah quoted from the book al-Mausu’ah al-Fiqhiyah al-Kutiyah I/278.
Khamer turns to vinegar
Khamer referred to in this context, seems to be an alcoholic beverage. The type of alcohol found in khamer is usually ethanol, which has the chemical formula C2H5OH, while vinegar has the chemical formula CH3COOH. Ethanol belongs to the class of alcohol compounds, while vinegar belongs to the class of carboxylic acid compounds. The two groups of compounds have different chemical properties. Thus, converting yeast (in the context of alcoholic beverages) to vinegar is a chemical change.
Animal manure is burned to ash
The main components of animal and human waste are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats from digestion. When burned, an oxidation reaction produces carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and water vapor (H2O), leaving black ash. Thus, the change from dirt to ash is a chemical change. A lump of blood (from sperm) that is unclean then turns pure after becoming a lump of flesh. Sperm becomes a lump of the flesh and undergoes chemical changes. Sperm fertilizes the egg and then becomes an embryo; with adequate nutrition, it develops into a lump of meat. The chemical composition of the sperm and the lump of flesh that is formed is chemically almost the same, but the chemical components in the meat are not the chemical components of the initial sperm. The chemical components have been regenerated increasingly; for example, the protein found in sperm and a lump of meat is different. Based on these scientific studies, the term that occurs in several examples of the hadith quoted by the four schools of thought is a chemical change. Thus, it can be concluded that changes in the biogas production process from animal manure include istihalah so that biogas is considered sacred. The process of chemical change has been explained in the subchapter on biogas production.
Conclusions
Production and distribution, as well as the use of biogas made from animal manure can be broadly considered to be permissible or halal. Even if there is an opinion that prohibits it for specific reasons, then, on the other hand, another Islamic law allows it. There are several reasons an argument for the permissibility of biogas. Animal manure is sacred and has experienced a chemical transformation process (istihalah) into methane gas. Thus, it is no longer najis, and its trading is also allowed with the naql yad technique (transferring power), even though some people still consider it najis. Trading halal biomass is also generally allowed. Even if an opinion prohibits the sale and purchase of biomass, it has been answered by the existence of the biomass as something sacred, so that or it could be by transferring ownership (naql al-yad). Biomass can be distributed directly or through agents, even for commercial purposes. Thus, there are no longer reasons for Muslims in Indonesia (with the majority of the Syafiiyah madhhab), as well as the world’s Muslims, to hesitate to use biogas made from manure, even the Zaidiyyah school of Shitte Islam also allows its utilization, production, and distribution.
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